better bicycle - now getting 2 amps steady charge ouput at 2nd highest gear while watching movie

So this is the third bicycle I've tried out on the treadmill motor charger. The first one I had the previous motor set up. Let's first review the specs on the first motor.

At 2 amps that means I can get 31 amphours - the full charge into the Chafon generator - in 15.5 hours. That's not too shabby for just pedaling a bicycle - no need for sun!! The solar panels will get 5 to 6 amps and the car charger will get 5 to 6 amps also.

So is this new motor, even though it has more horsepower than the last motor, really just a much higher RPM motor and therefore a much lower torque power at lower rpm?

https://elixirfield.blogspot.com/2019/01/the-joy-of-finally-liberating-dc-motor.html

That is the first  Treadmill motor.

5075 RPM at 15 amps and the voltage rating is 130 volts

Sure enough - it is probably 1000 RPM less then the motor I know have! Wow more like 1625 less rpm:

6700 RPM 18 AMP MAGNET

 130 volts x 15.7 amps = 2041 watt motor

So it's about 2.75 horsepower motor - but that is what my current motor claims. The big difference is the RPMs! So my current motor does not list the RPM but the same mounting bracket lists the RPM - based on the same motor model.

It was a higher amp also though - 18 amps.

So he's claiming at 60 volts he gets 3000 RPM!!

 This is because if electrical resistance in the motor is what limits your # of amps, then when you divide the voltage by 2, you have to divide the power you get by 2 squared (3, 3 squared, etc).

 So what was that equation again?

OK so we are dealing with OHMs as Volts (130) divided by Amps (15.8) = 8.2 Ohms as resistance. Then take the volts (17) divided by Ohms (8) to get the amps again as 2 amps.

 Wow - so I get the same result.
Only that was at 17 volts - and I have to now pedal up to 60 volts! Why? because the Ohms are less - less torque.

How much less?

130/18=

7 Ohm.

Oh wait - it might be 100 because it says 100 VDC yes and my first motor was 130 VDC. So a higher voltage with less RPM is definitely a way better motor for operating power.

yeah so 5.5 Ohm on the motor I have now.

 V is the voltage drop of the resistor, measured in Volts (V). In some cases Ohm's law uses the letter E to represent voltage. E denotes electromotive force.
I is the electrical current flowing through the resistor, measured in  Amperes (A)
R is the resistance of the resistor, measured in Ohms (Ω)

in the case of a typical cheap treadmill motor, results in the HP falling by the square of the speed- as in, at half RPM, HP is a quarter rating, at a quarter speed it's a sixteenth, etc.

 If you lower the voltage the current will be lower.
So in order to calculate the actual power we need to find the R or resistance of the motor. If we use ohms law V = I x R and rearrange it to V/I = R then 95Volts/21.4amps= 4.44 ohms.
The formula for Power in watts is Vsqrd/R or
48v x 48v / 4.44ohms = 519 watts
At full voltage 95v x 95v / 4.44 = 2033 watts
V = volts, I = current, R = resistance in ohms.

So If I am getting up to 3000 RPM at 60 volts - that is less than half speed which means it's less than one quarter the horse power.  So it says 2 horse power continuous or 1492 watts. So less than 370 watts. I calculated 60 volts x 2 amps = 120 watts... why? because the RPM value is a lot lower.

So we have 100 volts = 18 x Ohm, as I figured about at 5.5 Ohm.

So then we rearrange volts for power so at 60 voltes we get 60 x 60/5.5=
Actually based on the rating of 100 volts and the watts as 1492 then the Ohms is 6.7
So then we get how many amps?
60x60/6.7=
but then I need to add the 2 ohm of the battery - assuming that is the accurate, as that is the typical resistance of a 12 volt battery.
413 watts
So the amps is
still too high - 6 amps.
So what is the back current ohms of the DC-DC buck converter?

 it says 94% efficiency - someone tested it as 85%
But what about the Chafon generator?
https://elixirfield.blogspot.com/2019/02/the-skinny-on-chafon-lithium-battery.html

So then the Solar port DC charging states that with a solar panel at 18 volts (to maximize amps) you lose 20% of the amps to convert to the DC battery charging.

Also the car DC charging through the Solar port states if the input charge voltage is over 12.4 volts - then the battery voltage regulator flashes on the green light.

This is what happened to me BEFORE I got the DC/DC buck converter. I always saw that green light flash on the solar charger before it turned to Red. I had no idea that meant the voltage regulator was having to then lower the voltage.

So when I set the DC/DC buck converter to 12.2 volts that was the IDEAL most optimum voltage - even though each "pack" of cells is actually at over 13 volts to charge it. But the advanced battery management is not based on the pack (wired in a series) nor is it based on the 9 packs (wired in parallel) but it's based on EACH cell at 3.7 volts.

OH - so I need to reset the voltage level on the new DC-DC Buck Converter!! I have it set too HIGH - I have it set at 12.7 volts or so....

OK I reset it to 12.2 volts but then the amps dropped to only less than half of 1 amp at highest gear speed on the bicycle!! So the reason is because this new DC-DC Buck Converter draws 400 millivolts - so at 12.2 volts then the actually volts are below 12 and so the Chafon is not charging. Quite the drop!!

So then to experiment I increased the volts to just under 14 - and the amps went back up to just under 2 - sometimes 2 - but not STEADY at 2 amps. So that proves that it definitely was the voltage change that caused the amps to drop to less than one half amp!

So now I'll set the volts back to 12.7 - which seems to be the magic number. Because if I go any higher than I go over 12.4 volts. At 12.7 then I am drawing .4 for the DC-DC buck converter - so or a little less than .4 so I should be above 12.2 volts but under 12.4 volts. Maybe if I try 12.6 then it should be ok. I think it was set at 12.6 before.

OK so now I plugged in the 1.5 amp DVD player that has a 3.5 amp lithium battery charging up. I think the increase load on the DC Motor then enabled to get more amps at a lower speed!

So I can pedal in the 2nd highest gear while still maintaining a 2 amp charge into the Chafon 31 amphour lithium battery inverter generator. Pretty awesome!!

So once the DVD player battery charges up then it will stop drawing on the generator - and I'll see if the load goes down or I mean if the resistance goes up - so that the amps go down too much while in the 2nd highest gear.

On this device - it has to be powered first to change to amp reading and I can't reach it while riding the bicycle.

OK you do have the best vid on youtube for a treadmill motor generator. So getting 8 amps is very impressive! I am just really wondering though about what kind of amp draw do you get for charging a 12 volt battery? Because obviously the resistance is a lot lower on a battery - right? I mean if two light bulbs are rated to need about 8 amps to power them at 12 volts - then you're gonna get 8 amps through your DC-DC Buck converter! I am charging a 12 volt lithium battery - in series - 31amphours - and I can only get a 2 amp draw even though I also have 55 volts on my treadmill motor. So it's just because the 12 volt battery has a lower ohm resistance? 3.3 ohms I think. Let me look up the ohm resistance on two light bulbs.  So that is why you can get higher amps - right? I would like to get higher amps but I have not hooked up a higher draw directly to my DC/DC buck converter (and yes I think it's a 12 amp limit). I can go up to 75 volt input. Yeah it says up to 12 amps output. It's the Drok: D3806.

 Actually Mr. Electron is only getting a 2 amp draw average while charging the 12 volt battery. But he gets a 5 amp draw while charging the 60 watt lightbulb. Why? Because the internal resistance of a 12 volt battery is much lower and so the amp draw is much lower - even though the total amphours of the 12 volt batteries are 48 Ah. The internal resistance of a 12 volt car battery is 0.02 ohms. The internal ohms of a 60 watt 12 volt light bulb is 12/5 so 2.4 ohms. So Mr. Electron - you have ANSWERED a question I posed to another youtuber - but my lithium inverter generator has a 120 volt input for charging. So I think if I invert my DC motor amps (stepped down in voltage via a DC-buck converter) - into AC then I should get a higher load draw from the 12 volt battery since it would be higher volts so higher ohm resistance. But then it still has to convert it back to 12 volts inside the Chafon generator. Oops I just blew my car inverter experimenting on this since I could not tell which wire was positive or negative. I got smoke and a loud pop. I did not see any blown fuse inside but lots of little twine fraying. Strange - that stuff will really take a spark well! thanks for the vid. Fascinating.

 thanks for the advice. Yes I am using a DC-DC buck converter. So I get the RPMs up to about 3000 based on about 60 volts - on the bicycle treadmill motor. So that is then stepped down to 12.6 volts for charging the battery. I will now go buy a halogen light that is 60 watts. So that will have an ohm resistance of 12/5 (12 volts/5 amps) so over 2 ohms. A typical 12 volt battery only has an ohm resistance of .02 ohms. So that is why the light bulb should charge at 5 amps compared to the battery charging at only 2 amps. So that will verify that my DC-DC buck converter is producing the larger amps. Then if I switch from DC input on the Chafon 12 volt battery - to AC input then that should increase the resistance to increase the amps. So yes I can see why that would be more dangerous at the connection that I wire to the inverter. But if my experiment works - it would save about 10 hours of pedaling on the bicycle. haha.

 Ok so the Chafon generator says it charges faster off the 12 volt car charger. So I checked my 12 volt charger for the drill - it's actually 20 volts! The Chafon can also take up to 20 volts. So I then increased the DC-DC buck converter to 20 volt output because I had not realized before - that will increase my watts. So based on the comment I had mentioned earlier - the volt input changes the Ohm resistance significantly.

"One thing that really bothers me is your use of the battery as a load. If you have a battery of 12V and a resistance of 0.1 ohms at a point where the circuit is at a potential of 14.4V, you only have a voltage of 2.4V across that resistor."

So that is a difference of 2.4 volts - so that means if you have - he said 24 amps so then the ohm is .1 as the division. But if I have only 2 amps then the ohm resistance for the draw is 1.2 ohm. But if I am now using 20 volts so then I have a voltage of 6 across the resistor then the ohm is now 3 ohm - so twice the resistance. So I get more watts but it takes more pedaling resistance - TWICE as much - to maintain the 2 amps. I can't maintain 2 amps at that resistance. 

So if I charge at 120 volts - I'm not sure what the charging resistance is inside the Chafon. First I have to see if I can increase my amps - so I'll go buy two 50 watt bulbs and first do one - as 12 volts - so 4 amps. Then I'll try 2 bulbs wired together - as is shown in one of the vids - that will be 8 amps. So then - ok here's the deal - if my resistance does not increase on the load side of the generator then I don't see how the draw will increase.

If the draw doesn't increase - oh wait at higher volts will the resistance increase on the Chafon side? And even if it does that means I would be pedaling with that much more resistance. So it doesn't look like it will work. In fact the person lighting up the 100 watts of bulbs could barely do so since the pedaling resistance was so strong. So if I can barely pedal at 40 watts - then to get 100 watts would be difficult for very long.

Yes it says the 120/110 volt charge takes 5 to 6 hours (the last hour is just battery management). So we say 5 hours of charging which is 31 amphours - so that means it's 6 amps!! So for ohm resistance is volts/amps = an ohm level of 18.

So there's absolutely NO WAY I can pedal at 18 ohms resistance.

 A solar panel is a current source, not a voltage source. The spec on the [100 watt] panel is 18 volt Vmp and 5.55 Imp. When connected to a discharge battery the voltage of the panel is pulled down from 18 Vmp to match the battery voltage of around 12.1 volts and is supplying its constant current of 5.55 amps. Do the math 12.1 volts x 5.55 amps = 67 watts. You loose 33% of the panel power

 So the Chafon is stepping down the voltage and lose the WATTS anyway!! So no point in pedaling twice as hard!

Best solution is to find a charger for 6V NiMH 400mAh. But that will be hard, maybe impossible. So you need another solution.

What I would do: use a simple 12V DC adapter; very cheap. Connect it to the battery pack: - of adapter to - of battery; + of adapter to a resistor; other side of the resistor to + of battery pack. So the resistor is in series with the battery pack. Resistor value is 120 ohm, 0,5W. Very cheap too. Plug the adapter in. Start counting 14 hours. Disconnect everything. Battery should be full!

https://batteryuniversity.com/learn/article/charging_with_a_power_supply

Crash Landing on the Bicycle Generator - the new DC-DC Buck Converter tells all!! The 2 amp limit

So I got the new DC-DC buck converter operational. The idea behind a buck converter is pretty simple.

Can buck converter increase current if voltage step down ...

electronics.stackexchange.com › questions › can-buck-converter-incre...

2 answers

Jan 17, 2018 - 2 Answers. 

A buck converter can output almost all the power it's getting from its input (less typically 5-15% losses), which means if the output voltage is significantly lower than the input, the output current can be significantly higher.

 So before I thought I was getting 3 amps from my previous buck converter. But I was using the multimeter to read the amps. And I forgot that because the multimeter has very low resistance therefore the amps will be very high. So it was a faulty reading!!

This new DC-DC buck converter has a digital read out for amps - and so I only get a reading of 2 amps max (and that is at great resistance pedaling on the bicycle). So I can get only a trickle charge of 1 amp. It's better than nothing but it's hardly anything at all. Here a DC-DC Buck Converter on a bicycle DC motor is getting only 200 to 300 milliamps charge output - vid

So when I pedal faster than I do get an increase in amps but also it's much harder to pedal. I thought maybe if the battery is not as charged up then it should have lower resistance. So I ran the battery down to in the 20 percentile range. It made hardly any noticeable difference.

One thing that really bothers me is your use of the battery as a load. If you have a battery of 12V and a resistance of 0.1 ohms at a point where the circuit is at a potential of 14.4V, you only have a voltage of 2.4V across that resistor. So you're going to get a maximum of 24A pulled through the load resistor.

https://forum.allaboutcircuits.com/threads/buck-converter-steps-down-voltage-but-does-not-step-up-current.115519/page-2

interesting!

https://www.quora.com/How-exactly-does-a-DC-buck-converter-produce-a-low-voltage-high-current

Note the fact that the inductor is an element that:

a) stores energy in the form of magnetic field

b) “doesn’t like” the change in current - it tries to oppose it by producing a voltage to counteract this change

One way to imagine an inductor is to imagine a water turbine, assuming the pressure is the voltage and the water flow is current.

There are really two switches here - one is presented just as a switch (in reality it is a transistor, controlled by a controller) and one is a diode, which conducts only when voltage at the anode is greater from voltage at the cathode (so when the current through the inductor is decreasing, as you’ll see later). I’ll refer to them as S and D.

1. At the beginning, S is open (not conducting). No current flows and voltage across the load is zero.
2. S is closed (begins conducting). Current flowing through inductor starts to increase and inductor responds to this change by producing voltage of the opposite polarity, so the voltage across the load is equal to the difference of input voltage and voltage produced by the inductor because of change in current - therefore, it’s smaller than supply voltage. Diode is not conducting at this moment. We’re also ignoring the voltage drop across the switch for simplicity.
3. S is open (stops conducting). The current (from the source, that’s important) rapidly drops to zero, but there’s still magnetic field accumulated in the inductor that has to go somewhere. Remember that the inductor responds to change of current by generating a voltage. This voltage will have opposite polarity from the voltage generated when the current was increasing (the minus will be on the left, the plus on the right). Diode starts conducting and now the inductor powers the load through the diode with a decreasing current. Note that the input source is now disconnected and current flows only from the inductor, through the diode, to the load. Because of that, the average current flowing through the load is greater than the average current drawn from the source.

Note that even if the current is drawn from the source in pulses, it is delivered to the load even in the absence of current being drawn from the source (when the switch stops conducting), and I’m deliberately avoiding the word “continuously” here, because it’s not always the case. The average current through the load is larger from the average current drawn from the source.

Another way to think about it is that because energy has to be conserved and no energy has been wasted here (we’re ignoring losses, because even if they limit the final efficiency, they’re not relevant to the theory of operation, as opposed to linear regulators, in which power loss is their principle of operation), the same energy with the lower voltage delivered is able to sustain a bigger current - hence increase of average current.

 So a DC-DC Buck converter tutorial vid

OK so basically because I'm using a battery as a load - that has lower resistance - then the DC-DC buck converter is losing too many amps due to the back current being too strong. I'm not sure what is happening.

But at least with this new device I could get a better reading of my amps.

So then I decided to use my battery generator - the Chafon - to power the Treadmill DC motor. I hooked up a DC 3 amp 12 volt output from the Chafon to the Treadmill motor. So then I knew what 12 volts was. So then I hooked up the bicycle poly V-belt so that it the bicycle wheel was not powered by the Treadmill Motor via the Chafon - and not the other way around! This was a lot of fun - and so the 12 volt speed is as slow as I can go. 1.5 HP DC Motor to 48V Electric Generator DIY - Amazing Idea 2019 vid shows a lot of torque at 12 volts!

So then I hooked up the Multimeter again - and when I pedal - I can not get a steady output speed from the bicycle - I guess since the torque is higher at slow speed. So then I did an amp reading - and literally when I spin the bicycle wheel by HAND then I get the highest amp reading - over 2 amps and almost 3 amps. So the irony being that a Treadmill motor is designed for higher amps at walking speed. Only to charge a battery then I lose amps by increasing the voltage.

So that is why a DC-DC Buck converter does not increase amps much via a treadmill motor.

For the new 12-volt TV, the specs say a 3.17 amp draw max

So he powers a 12 volt 7 inch tv by walking on the treadmill - vid

So this person has the SAME set up that I did - and pedals at just over 12 volts and says he gets about 2 amps (but he was not real clear on the amps!)

So this person says - don't pedal over 13 volts or the exact energy is just wasted in heat sinks, etc.

Here someone is getting 1 amp max for steady output - vid 

 The PS2 requires 30 Watts of power through an AC inverter. The purpose of the inverter is to convert 14.8 DC (Direct current) volts from the pedal power bike generator into 110 Volts AC (Alternate Current) which is what you use when you plug something into the wall outlet in your Home. So when you pedal you will be supplying a total of 30 Watts and about 2.0 Amps. Note: the way you calculate Watts is Current AMPS X Volts. In this case: 2.0 Amps x 14.8Volts DC = 29.6 Watts. If you want to see voltage current Amps and Watts waveform graph data from this application go to http://pedalpowergenerator.com

So he recommends the charge controller so that the generator doesn't blow up...

So it is good that I am using the DC-DC buck converter for that reason.

https://www.askaprepper.com/diy-bicycle-generator/

alternator runs off RPM, not HP. A 100 amp alternator must turn at 1200 RPM to produce 100 amps. At 600 RPM it will generate half that or 50 amps.

 So based on my previous DC motor post - I would need a huge amount of rpms -

So to get 1 amp is actually not so bad based on the motor rated at over 6000 rpm for 18 amps I think.

6700 RPM 18 AMP MAGNET

 The lower the RPM of a motor, the more torque it will have – torque being the measure of a tendency to cause rotation; in other words, the power to turn. This allows the motor to last longer. I strongly recommend a motor with an RPM rating of 4000 or lower, but never more than 5000.

https://blog.johnsonfitness.com/blog/treadmill_drive_motors_and_the_question_of_horsepower/

 This is crucial because this is where a lot of manufacturers begin to play with, and boost, the ratings above 2.5 in to the 3.5 and 4 HP range. In a lot of those cases, if we examine the plate stamped on the treadmill, you will find RPM ratings in the 7000 to 8000 range. This is how they can get away with these bloated HP rating numbers.

  And second, generally speaking they only generate the rated HP at their top speeds, which in my experience has been anywhere from 4,500 to 7,000 rpm.

here's another treadmill motor spec:

1.75 HP Continuous Duty @ 90 VDC
Amps 15
4200 RPM @ 90 VDC

 1.75 hp = 1330W (hp x 760)
4200 rpm = 439.8 radians/sec (2 x PI x rpm/60)
torque =1330/439.8
=3.02Nm

DC motors produce maximum torque at zero RPM.

an Australian history movie, ( John Flynns Outback ) and they had radios in very remote areas mainly used to call the “Flying Doctor” that were peddle operated, and this was in the 1930’s. I would think if peddle power was ever going to be used as a main power supply, it would of happened before now, but still its usable

https://www.instructables.com/id/Best-DIY-Bike-Trainer-Generator/

So he can get over 4000 rpm at 15 mph!!

Oh he is converting to AC power so when he says 400 watts he means 3.3 amps. But he blew the circuit at 300 watts. So he's back down to ... 2 amps. Not bad.

A treadmill motor from a pro form treadmill.
2.65 hp (1.5 hp cont. Duty at 95 vdc). 21.4 amps. INS. class H. 25c ambient. Open const. External fan

The treadmill motor is rated at 95 volts so if you use 48 volts
It will only put out about 0.4hp to .66hp but should last a long time.

In Brazil they have inmates on bikes chargeing batteries to power street lamps ....they bike 8 hours a day! At a moderate pace!

I had a little time last weekend to tinker again with the treadmill.

i hooked the multimeter to the pos and neg leads to the motor to see what the motor runs at. What i found is that for every mph you set the treadmill for, the voltage changes accordingly: 1 mph = 10volts; 2 mph = 20volts; all the way to 10 mph = 95volts

then i connected the motor to a 12 volt battery. the motor spun (silently) but had almost no tourque. at 10volts from the treadmill it spins (noisily) with loads of tourque.

Your math for Ohm's law for solving resistance is correct, but it has flawed data for current. Specifically, the 21.4 amps is not the stall current. You have to take into account the motor's back EMF when it is turning. He would have to lock down the shaft and apply low voltage to the motor then read the current that flows to the motor and measure the voltage at the motor terminals to get as accurate a result as possible.

Exactly!

http://www.diygokarts.com/vb/archive/index.php/t-4728.html

As I also blogged:

https://elixirfield.blogspot.com/2019/02/eb-aka-back-emf-aka-counter.html

So now I'm challenging this person's claim of getting 300 watts - because he is not taking into account the RPMs needed for the amps - and also what the Ohms are based on the rpms!

https://www.thedoityourselfworld.com/articles/article.php?id=11488

 If it's a 90V motor (I have a Baldor treadmill motor rated at that) you're already seeing less than half the rated voltage, and thus half (or less) the HP. Actually, you're probably down to more like a sixth or even just an eighth the HP- the power curve on those lightweight, high speed motors falls off real fast as the RPM drops.

https://www.garagejournal.com/forum/showthread.php?t=186594

  in the case of a typical cheap treadmill motor, results in the HP falling by the square of the speed- as in, at half RPM, HP is a quarter rating, at a quarter speed it's a sixteenth, etc.

 If you lower the voltage the current will be lower.
So in order to calculate the actual power we need to find the R or resistance of the motor. If we use ohms law V = I x R and rearrange it to V/I = R then 95Volts/21.4amps= 4.44 ohms.
The formula for Power in watts is Vsqrd/R or
48v x 48v / 4.44ohms = 519 watts
At full voltage 95v x 95v / 4.44 = 2033 watts
V = volts, I = current, R = resistance in ohms.

So that's 44 watts at 4.44 ohms and 14 volts!!

The K_v rating of a brushless motor is the ratio of the motor's unloaded rotational speed (measured in RPM) to the peak (not RMS) voltage on the wires connected to the coils (the back EMF).

 9.1 amps at 130vdc is more like 1.58 hp theoretical, probably 1hp actual shaft hp.

amps squared is proportional to watts lost in the rotor.

 https://electronics.stackexchange.com/questions/162187/does-a-motors-stall-current-change-with-applied-voltage

 Once the rotor starts to rotate it will induce a back emf so the voltage 'seen' across the rotor will be reduced. The net current through the motor will be reduced.

 So the Chafon is 97 volts and 31 amps - so the Ohms is ~ 3.2

That means at maximum solar input the panel can deliver its rated power into a 18 volt / 5.55 amps = 3.24 ohms.

Ah - now it's starting to make sense!  So again that's the "LOAD" of the Chafon battery.... as it charges up, the resistance goes up. https://bbs.homeshopmachinist.net/forum/general/13538-dc-motor-question-inline-choke

The motors may not have sufficient internal inductance to smooth out the current flow. Current is what produces torque, so if current flow is uneven, the torque is too.

If you have access to a DMM with an inductance meter in it (Some HP handhelds, IIRC), you can measure directly. Otherwise you need an inductance bridge, or a signal generator, scope, and a capacitor or two to get at the value.

  If the speed control delivers more than the motor can immediately use, the excess is converted and stored in the form of a magnetic field around the coil in the core. As the motor catches up, the magnetic field collapses, converting back into electrical energy to be dumped, along with the supply current, into the motor.

Speed is proportional to voltage and torque is proportional to current.  ...The DC resistance of the DC motor is quite low. It does NOT take high voltage to get high torque at low speed, it only takes the voltage required to push the required current thru the low resistance. And motors run on torque.

 Most of the voltage driving a DC motor is used to overcome back EMF, or "self generation". The base speed at any voltage produces a certain back EMF. Back EMF is dependent on RPM.

The DIFFERENCE between the back EMF and the applied voltage is SMALL, but it is what controls the torque to turn the motor at that speed against the load.

 The "base speed" is the speed at which the difference between back EMF and applied voltage produces just enough current through the DC resistance of the motor to produce the required torque to keep it going at that speed.

1) THEREFORE, at a low speed, with resulting LOW back EMF, it requires only a SMALL voltage to produce the same torque.

At low speeds a DC motor is generally constant torque, variable power.

 DC motors slow down with increasing load. The motor load can be sensed with a resistor in series with the motor. The sensed voltage is amplified and causes the voltage to the motor to increase with load. This increased motor voltage cancels the RPM drop with load.
The technique is called 'IR compensation' and it works satisfactorily down to about 100 RPM.

 When the motor is loaded, it slows a bit, and draws more current. It MUST slow in order to draw that added current through the circuit resistances. That causes the resistances to have a (possibly) considerable effect on the speed regulation.

The IR compensation provides a small (usually adjustable) boost of voltage that is proportional to current draw. The proportionality is important.

What that does is to partly negate the effect of the resistances so they have less influence on speed. It makes them "appear to be" much smaller. The motor need not slow as much to draw the same increased current, because a slight current increase also boost the drive output voltage. The same current increase is obtained with only a slight slow down, less than otherwise required. In that way speed regulation under load is improved.

The reason the treadmill motors are said to be over-rated in power is that folks try to run them slow. They are high speed, low torque motors, that must turn fast to produce rated power. they have a high "base speed". When people try to run them slow, they notice the low torque, and tend to equate that with an overall lack of power, but it is really just a misuse of the motor that is causing a problem.

https://www.motioncontroltips.com/faq-difference-between-torque-back-emf-motor-constant/

Hitting 70 volts - in preparation for the new DC-DC Buck Converter

So last year I reached 80 volts in highest gear. But now I have a slightly smaller motor and slightly smaller bicycle - so I reached 70 volts. I don't have my multimeter attached anymore to the connection to the generator - so I can not monitor my volts while charging the generator. I have to be below 36 volts to charge the generator - with the DC-DC buck converter I have.

Tomorrow I'm supposed to get a bigger DC-DC buck converter - so then I can go up to 75 volts while still charging the generator! This means I can pedal as fast as I want - since my fastest speed with no load or resistance is 70 volts.

So trying to read amps with no load hooked up - it doesn't work. I don't get as many amps due to the back EMF or reverse current aka the torque.

So we shall see what happens tomorrow. I need to first power the DC-DC buck converter with a battery so I can set up the voltage and amp settings - I need at least 12.6 volts. So I'll set it at 12. 7 volts for charging. I'll set the amps to 6 amps.

I really have no idea how many amps I'll get. Hopefully it will be more than 4 - hopefully it will be over 5 amps!! That would be very exciting. The new DC-DC Buck converter is supposed to tell me both amps and volts while I am charging.

How does the US Empire Work? Dr. Michael E. Hudson on the truth of reality

You want to listen to Michael E. Hudson - he's the real expert on economics. Basically after going off the gold standard - the US now relies on the "Petrodollar" - which means that the value of the dollar is backed by our genocidal military invasions of oil-rich countries (like Venezuela, Iran, Iraq). So Saudi Arabia was behind 9/11 and the Saudis invest their profits into treasury bonds of the US and Wall St. - and then the Saudis buy US weapons - and control OPEC. So that was set up by Kissinger and then called the Carter Doctrine - that the US will invade to protect the PetroDollar. So we maintain monopoly control of the Oil over Japan and Germany.

So in the past 10 years the US military has "lost $21 trillion" - off the books - and the central banks of the West have also CREATED $21 trillion as welfare for Wall St. Over 90% of Wall St. growth is due to "stock buybacks" - meaning next to free low interest loans that then prop up their stock rate of return - Stock Buybacks used to be ILLEGAL. So it's a HUGE ponzi scheme for the rich and then slave labor for the masses.

Right now the Arctic is seen as the new contest for oil/gas but abrupt global warming will be tanking the economy - since you can't eat money. http://arctic-news.blogspot.com details how abrupt global warming will be doubling very soon to the East Siberian Arctic Shelf Methane Bomb going off from El Nino this fall. So money historically has ALWAYS been valued by the military - China was the first to create "paper money" and valued it by the military expansion. So we already have a socialist economy based on military spending - as Noam Chomsky points out. So the internet was developed by the military - all our high tax was first developed by military contracts - and then it is handed over for free to private spin-off companies through the military contracts. The problem is military spending is very bad at creating good spending jobs - so the military contracts are purposely in EVERY political district in the US to ensure that the politicians are controlled by the military contractors for "job creation."

So then right now - 40% of GDP is from financial parasites - collecting dividends and capitol gains and rents - through passive UNEARNED income - and this is concentrating wealth while creating a HUGE debt. So that is why the FED can no longer increase the interest rates - the US Empire is already bankrupt. ONLY the military is propping up the value of the dollar by enforcing economic sanctions against countries that don't allow "opening up" of markets to US control.

For example CARGILL is the largest private corporation in the world that controls US grain trading - and so the US government pays CARGILL to store grain which is then DUMPED into other countries to then WIPE OUT their local farmers. This is why after NAFTA over 1 million Mexican farmers fled into the US because CARGILL dumped corn into Mexico. Cargill for example DUMPED grain into Somalia into Mogadishu - where the farmers controlled the capitol. So CARGILL dumped the food at 1/6th the local price - thereby wiping out the farmers and causing a political vacuum and civil war. Cargill does that in over 100 countries worldwide. So you can't EAT money but you can use food as a weapon of imperialism.

 Europe uses the term "Social Democrat" for Bernies views - NOT "socialist" - so Europe has both "Social Democrats" and "Democratic socialists." So it is just a label - when you look at Bernie's views he's not calling for nationalization of business. In fact with the 2008 financial meltdown - we did have Nationalization of business - with the bailouts and buyouts. Also the military contracts are the real socialism. This is what Bernie points out - just as Martin Luther King Jr stated - it is socialism for the rich ALREADY in the U.S. 

For example the Central Banks of the West have printed out of thin air - in the last ten years - $21 TRILLION in FREE MONEY for Wall St. So over 90% of Wall St. growth has been from "stock buybacks" due to very low interest loans. Stock buybacks used to be illegal. Nomi Prins has lots of vids on youtube about this - she used to work for Goldman Sachs. So the Democratic Party is already controlled by the Goldman Sachs Socialism for the Rich elite.

 Also Micah - I personally talked to bare-footed peasants in Venezuela in 1998 - and they had never voted before but they decided to vote for Hugo Chavez. The fact is that the poor in Venezuela did have their conditions greatly improved but the US literally staged a military coup against Hugo Chavez. The US masses do not know about this. The US has historically controlled Venezuela through right wing military fascism. I also stayed at a man who worked for Venezuela at OPEC - and he was kidnapped by the Jackal - so he trained at Columbia University. So I did my undergraduate degree in International Relations - we in the US do not understand that the US is an empire. So we "impose" democracy on other countries by actually supporting fascist regimes. The reason Venezuela is in such bad condition is because of the US sanctions and the US military coup - and the US funding the protests, etc.

 yeah except it is about time that the US masses realize how US Empire works. Have you read JOhn Perkin's book "Confessions of an Economic Hitman"? The US CIA assassinates presidents who do not fall in line with the imposed World Bank and IMF austerity programs for the poor and handouts for the rich. That's the REAL corruption going on. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FEsSf7ARpw8 The fact is there was a US military coup attempt against Venezuela and the US has done this countless times in other countries - so the Rockefellers could get Iranian Oil after the 1953 coup and the coup in Guatemala was mass mind controlled by the nephew of Freud - for the sake of United Fruit working with the CIA - Dulles Brothers working with the Nazis. Operation Condor was a CIA Latin American support of fascist regimes based on mass torture and assassination - and massacres. That's the REAL corruption going on.

 thank you and I noticed you are into music. So I have studied music and also activism - so yes our political system is way more corrupt than we realize. And it goes deeper than this. OK let me share some connections between music and politics - the economics professor Michael E. Hudson also started out training in music. Hudson points out how the equal-tempered music tuning was promoted as "social harmony" when it is a tuning based on logarithms (equal-tempered) that have an inverse exponential function.

So this is an ancient political philosophy even embedded in our music! So all human cultures use the Octave, Perfect Fifth and Perfect Fourth as 1:2:3:4 music tuning. Only in the West was infinite time-frequency then "contained" as a symmetric geometry. So Plato taught that each citizen has a value of 9/8 (the major 2nd music interval) which must be compromised for the good of the state as equal-tempered tuning - so that 9/8 cubed (logarithms) equals the tritone as the square root of two.

This is not the empirical truth of reality. In fact the Perfect Fifth and Perfect Fourth are "non-commutative" - to the octave. That simply means that 2 does not go into 3 and so reality is based on complementary opposites - so for example in Daoist music then yang is the Perfect Fifth and Yin is the Perfect Fourth - and their music scale does not line up with the octave! So then for Plato - even democracy is a scam - that tries to equate equal-tempered citizens with a secret exponential growth of technology and science.

 I have corresponded with numerous scientists about this - like math professor Luigi Borzacchini who calls this secret music origin of Western science the "deep pre-established disharmony" that is the "evoltive principle" of science. So for example the circle of fifths is actually an infinite spiral of fifths - as Sir James Jeans points out in his book "Science and Music." This simple fact is ignored and covered up by so-called music experts - like that one youtube channel who does music theory - Adam Neely. So yes our political system is so corrupt that even the experts do not realize how deep the lies are.

There is a book called "The Paper Economy" by David T. Bazelon that notes how our patent system for technology develop is tied to the legal system via our economics. So Plato set this up - that's what Bazelon notes. So now with exponential growth - we have created the ecological crisis on Earth and abrupt global warming is now inevitable because of the aerosol masking effect from burning coal and oil. In other words Sulfur pollution has cooled the planet about half as much as global warming emissions have WArmed the planet. This means that the more we use renewable energy and the less sulfur pollution we have from coal and oil - then the more we warm the planet! Also there are positive feedback amplifications from Nature already - the Eastern Siberian Arctic Shelf has a huge "methane bomb" that is already starting to go off - http://arctic-news.blogspot.com has the details.

So yes our political system is very corrupt but so is western civilization general - our legal system as well. For example my dad was the assistant attorney general of Minnesota - and so when Jesse Ventura was elected as an independent governor - you know what happened? Jesse Ventura relates how the CIA called him into the basement of the capitol and he was surrounded by a dozen CIA agents demanding to know how Ventura got elected as an independent and what he was going to do as governor. So the CIA really does try to control politics. And also - I pointed out to Jesse that when he promoted CARGILL to go into Cuba - this really was part of just the US Empire corruption that Jesse was not even aware of!

If you want to learn about the implications of noncommutative music tuning as the truth of reality then watch this lecture by Fields Medal math professor Alain Connes (a Fields Medal is harder to get than a Nobel Prize). https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bIziuv-WLMM

 The issue isn't deficits rather the issue is the value of the dollar based on the treasury bonds. The US relies on China, Japan, Germany and the SAudis to buy treasury bonds. The traditional rate of return on the treasury bond is 6% - that is what the FED banks pay themselves when they print money and buy bonds. But because the FED and other central banks have printed So much money - $21 trillion in the past ten years as Nomi Prins points out - now the interest rate can not be increased. Why?

It's basic math - a bigger debt means that it's not affordable to pay back the interest on the loans. So the US is currently FORCING other countries to invest in our bonds - because there is nothing else to do with all the surplus dollars in their banks from the trade deficits. And so BECAUSE of the PetroDollar - the US forces everyone to buy oil in US dollars and also to pay back international loans in dollars as "hard currency." That is the basis of Empire.

 yes the foreign owned treasury securities increased from $6.2 trillion in 2014 to $6.3 trillion in 2018 - so it's a huge amount. During the same time period total debt increased from 13 trillion to $16.1 trillion. So Foreigners own 39% of public debt as of end of 2018 - That is both government and private foreign investment - whereas in 2014 the foreign owned debt was 48% of total US debt. So this is a problem because it proves that the world is divesting from the ballooning US debt. Citing 2019 Congressional Research Service https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/RS22331.pdf

The FED owns something like 11% of the bonds - and other banks own more as well. So the big concern is that other countries are trying to buy oil and gas NOT in US dollars and then create their own banks - and not invest their surplus dollars back into bonds. And if they don't have to buy oil/gas in dollars - and then they can trade with other countries and pay off loans not in dollars. So then the US is left with a huge debt. The only incentive to buy bonds is the interest rate but since our debt is so big the FED can no longer afford to raise the rate.

This is not discussed in public - there's a couple youtube channels that cover this. So again the US military enforces the PetroDollar - so Iraq was invaded and Libya was invaded and Venezuela is being invaded - and China is being challenged - so they all were and are trying to move off the dollar economy. So the US military enforces the value of the PetroDollar. It's not a very efficient system - that's why military debt has bankrupted the Empire.

It happens to all empires - it's military over-reach. US Wall St. value has relied on over 90% being from "stock buy backs" - so the banks get next to free money from the FED since the interest rate is now close to zero. So the larger the loan then the lower the interest rate. So then a corporation takes out a huge loan at very low interest rate but then buys their own stocks so that the stock value then rises over 6% rate of return a year.

So that means the corporation makes a profit but it is purely speculation without any real economic value (and the tax payer then has to repay the debt based on the treasury notes issued from the printing of the free FED money). So that is the biggest economic scam in world history - as Nomi Prins points out the central banks have created $21 trillion in the last ten years just as FREE money for wall st. speculation. Stock Buybacks used to be illegal but now they are by far the main means of Wall St. earnings.

Professor Michael E. Hudson - on secrets of Empire - vid

and more

Dr. Michael Hudson: Economic Lessons for 2020

 "My father was sent to jail for trying to organize the Teamsters Union as a Trotskyist in Minnesota....Minneapolis was the head of the Teamsters Revolt with the general strik ein the 30s...Roosevelt said look the Democratic Party is based in the cities. We need to put the mafia in charge of the labor unions. We need to put the Communist Party in charge because they promised not to go on strike in WWII if we get rid of the Trotskyists. So everybody I knew, instead of being drafted into the army, they were drafted into jail for fighting against the Stalinism, the mafia and the labor union movement and basically against the crooks in the Democratic party."

 yes 40% of GDP is from financial speculation now. The real problem is the FED is a private bank that "loans" to the tax payers - and the FED typically pays a 6% rate of return on the bonds its buys as the interest rate on money. So in contrast China has a government owned bank and so can finance whatever it wants with an INTEREST-FREE loan!! So if a project goes bankrupt - a business - then instead of the jobs being wiped out by a speculator taking over - a Vulture - then in contrast the Chinese government just wipes out the bank loan!

That is how banking used to be done in the original imperial city-states as Michael E. Hudson points out - so the Jubilee days of the Bible. So in fact the Wall St. Bubble was FINANCED already by the Tax Payer - you have it turned around. The Central Banks have pumped $21 Trillion of FREE MONEY into Wall St. in the past 10 years - as Nomi Prins has pointed out. So that means big corporations get a much lower interest rate on loans - due to a larger loan amount - and using their business as collateral. The loan is then used for a previously ILLEGAL stock buyback - so that suddenly the stock value goes up as a speculation bubble.

But now the federal debt is so huge due to selling of bonds to the FED - that the interest rate can not be raised. So what was previously a 6% rate is now close to zero - meaning that the US Empire is financially already bankrupt and it's not that Bernie wants money from the Rich. Bernie is exposing the fact that the Rich already have free money from the taxpayers - and the poor people pay a higher percentage of taxes on EARNED income - in contrast to lower taxes on unearned and passive income. It's called Debt Deflation.

 Michael E. Hudson:

"The reason is not only financial, it's be fiscal. The taxes have been shifted off banks and their customers, mainly real estate and monopolies, onto labor. In the United States, for instance, in the 1930s, seventy percent of all state and local tax revenues came from real estate, from the property tax. Today only 1/6th comes from that. States and cities have been convinced to lower the property tax burden and to take an income and sales tax and the worse is your value-added tax. Your value-added tax is intruded onto the market and shrinking it and preventing you from buying the goods your produce. They're taking the value-added tax and giving it to the bankers who control your government and control your politicians....to bail out the banks, because the plan they have for you doesn't work, and it leaves somebody bankrupt and it's not going to be the banks, because they give us our jobs."

MMT's Michael Hudson Explains The Debt Deflation Era We Live In

"The pensions were paid by bankers saving the money in advance, creating a huge budget surplus, giving the surplus to the government, so that the government would cut taxes on real estate, cut taxes on finance, cut taxes on the rich, cut them in half, cut capital gain taxes and then say: NOW were broke, we have to increase the social security tax further -  because the workers have not paid enough to social security to get it enough money, to fight the war in Iraq, to fight the war in Iran, to fight the war in Afghanistan and most of all to fight the class war against labor."

OK you keep confusing "stock sell offs" with fiscal policy - the FED. First of all even those 10% that "hate Bernie" still do not own much of stocks. 

The richest 1% own 50% of stocks held by American households finance.yahoo.com › news › the-richest-1-own-50-of-stocks-held-by-... Jan 17, 2019. 

So Wealth is more concentrated now than ever before. Secondly that wealth is not the "real" economy in the sense that the wealth is from FED WELFARE. It's Free socialism for the Rich. That's what Bernie keeps repeating and he'll keep repeating it forever because obviously you are in denial of this basic concept. Do you know what a "stock buyback" is? 

"There's a Worrisome Trend in Share Buybacks | Stock Market ... money.usnews.com › Money › Investing › Stock Market News Aug 15, 2019 - Wall Street seems to be using record-setting buybacks as a crutch to drive earnings per share growth." https://wolfstreet.com/2019/04/08/what-would-stocks-do-in-a-world-without-buybacks-goldman-asks/ "The net effect of these investor groups is that they together shed $1.1 trillion of shares (included in these categories, and spread over them, are ETFs). But the $1.1 trillion of shares that these investor groups shed over those five years was overpowered by $2.95 trillion of share buybacks over those five years."  

So while you keep talking about Bernie being dependent on the rich selling stocks - in fact the Share or Stock buyback scams - FUNDED BY FED FREE MONEY - has been 3 times MORE than selling stocks. And how much FREE money are we talking about? $21 trillion at least. 

 Nomi Prins: The central banking heist has put the world at risk ... unherd.com › 2018/06 › nomi-prins-central-banking-heist-put-world-... Jun 15, 2018 - Nomi Prins: The central banking heist has put the world at risk ... conjured money, out of a worldwide QE total of around $21 trillion”, says Prins. https://unherd.com/2018/06/nomi-prins-central-banking-heist-put-world-risk/  

Since QE began, in the aftermath of the financial crisis, “the US Federal Reserve has produced a massive $4.5 trillion of conjured money, out of a worldwide QE total of around $21 trillion”, says Prins. The combination of ultra-low interest rates and vast monetary expansion, she explains, has caused “speculation to rage … much as a global casino would be abuzz if everyone gambled using everyone else’s money”. Prins was also a member of Senator Bernie Sanders’ team of economic experts, advising on central bank reform."

 So if you want to talk about Bernie you better also talk about the FED also. oops. 

 “When the asset bubble pops, the fragile financial system and the broader economic environment could be thrown into deep depression and turmoil,” she says. “That’s why the QE baton has been passed from the US to other nations, and why the central banks are so desperate to collude.”  

Yep - it just popped.

Humans were Domesticated by C4 photosynthetic CO2 sequestration GRASS

Rowan Sage

Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory

Adjunct Senior Research Scientist

Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory

Biology and Paleo Environment

University of Toronto

Dept of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology

Mail Code: 25 Willcocks Street

Toronto ON M5S3B2

Canada

Phone: 

(416) 978- 7660

 rfs2140@columbia.edu

 The spread of the savanna grasses may have been a precondition for the evolution of the traits that characterize our genus, Homo, suggested Rowan Sage, of the University of Toronto, at a conference on human evolution and climate change at Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory here in New York on Thursday (April 19).

 https://www.livescience.com/19823-grass-fed-evolution-altered-environment-fueled-human-change.html

After about 35 million years ago, an upgraded version of photosynthesis emerged, called the C4 pathway. And in time the plants that employed it, including grasses and sedges, spread. A declining level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere appears to have been responsible for the switch to C4. Chemical evidence suggests the greenhouse gas declined over tens of millions of years.

C4 plants could use carbon dioxide more efficiently to feed themselves, and they used less water, making them well adapted to dry environments, like those favored during the Pliocene Epoch, which began about 5.3 million years ago, when grasslands and savannas spread.

As a potential source of food, the C4 plants weren't the best innovation. They offered tough, fibrous leaves, small-seeded grains and small, fibrous rhizomes. Even today, only a few dozen C4 plants, most significantly maize and sugar cane, are cultivated for food.

But some other animals were better adapted to digesting these plants. Ruminants, such as cows and buffalo, regurgitate and re-chew a tough meal, Sage said.

"So the possibility is human evolution was driven by our ancestors going out and taking down the (animals) who could digest the C4 vegetation. But they would have to deal with these guys," he said, referring to a photo of a lion during his presentation.

So, given the option of eating the C4-eaters and the need to avoid predators, early humans may have evolved an upright stature, begun running long distances, carrying out extended hunts in groups and defending against predators, and evolved other distinctly human traits, he said.

 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320519687_Photosynthetic_pathway_of_grass_fossils_from_the_upper_Miocene_Dove_Spring_Formation_Mojave_Desert_California

 The spread of grasslands in the Miocene and of C4 grasses in the late Miocene-Pliocene represents a major development in terrestrial plant evolution that affected the climate system and faunal evolution

The family of grasses (Poaceae) is highly diverse with up to 11,000

species and largely dominates open habitat ecosystems around the

world (Gibson, 2009). Within grasses, a specialized photosynthetic

pathway for fixating CO2 from the atmosphere evolved relatively re-

cently. This pathway, known as C4 photosynthesis, is an adaptation to

the ancestral C3 photosynthetic pathway that acts to mitigate the effects

of photorespiration that can occur in response to ecological pressures in

C3 photosynthesis. C4 has evolved at least 62 different times, resulting

in one of the best examples of convergent evolution (Sage et al., 2011,

2012).

  C4 shade-tolerant species exhibit similar performance as shade-tolerant C3 species in terms of quantum yield, steady-state photosynthetic

 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320519687_Photosynthetic_pathway_of_grass_fossils_from_the_upper_Miocene_Dove_Spring_Formation_Mojave_Desert_California

C4 grasses are both anatomically and biochemically distinct from C3 grasses. In C3 plants, both carbon assimilation and carbon reduction occur in the mesophyll cells. In C4 plants, these processes are spatially separated resulting in the internal concentration of CO2, where CO2 is assimilated into mesophyll cells and then shuttled into vascular bundle sheath cells where carbon reduction occurs via the Calvin cycle (Hatch,1987). 

 The biochemical compartmentalization of C4 photosynthesis commonly results in a wreath-like structure, when viewed in cross section, known as “Kranz”anatomy in which mesophyll cells wrap

around an inner layer of bundle sheath cells (Brown, 1975; Hatch, 1987). Almost all known C4 plant lineages have Kranz anatomy (Bowes,2011; Sage et al., 2011; Voznesenskaya et al., 2001). The ability of the C4 pathway to concentrate CO2 around the photosynthetic enzyme, Rubisco, confers a competitive advantage over the C3 photosynthetic pathway in warm, dry and/or low CO2 conditions (Ehleringer et al.,1997). As a result of this process, the organic carbon isotope value of C4 plants is more 13 C-enriched than co-occurring C3 plants. Therefore both visual as well as isotopic evidence can be used to distinguish between the C3 and C4 photosynthetic pathway.

Quo vadis C4? An ecophysiological perspective on global change and the future of C4 plants

C₄ plants are directly affected by all major global change parameters, often in a manner that is distinct from that of C₃ plants. Rising CO₂ generally stimulates C₃ photosynthesis more than C₄, but C₄ species still exhibit positive responses, particularly at elevated temperature and arid conditions where they are currently common. Acclimation of photosynthesis to high CO₂ occurs in both C₃ and C₄ plants, most notably in nutrient-limited situations. High CO₂ aggravates nitrogen limitations and in doing so may favor C₄ species, which have greater photosynthetic nitrogen use efficiency. C₄ photosynthesis is favored by high temperature, but global warming will not necessarily favor C₄ over C₃ plants because the timing of warming could be more critical than the warming itself. C₃ species will likely be favored where harsh winter climates are moderated, particularly where hot summers also become drier and less favorable to C₄ plant growth. Eutrophication of soils by nitrogen deposition generally favors C₃ species by offsetting the superior nitrogen use efficiency of C₄ species; this should allow C₃ species to expand at the expense of C₄ plants. Land-use change and biotic invasions are also important global change factors that affect the future of C₄ plants. Human exploitation of forested landscapes favors C₄ species at low latitude by removing woody competitors and opening gaps in which C₄ grasses can establish. Invasive C₄ grasses are causing widespread forest loss in Asia, the Americas and Oceania by accelerating fire cycles and reducing soil nutrient status. Once established, weedy C₄ grasses can prevent woodland establishment, and thus arrest ecological succession. In sum, in the future, certain C₄ plants will prosper at the expense of C₃ species, and should be able to adjust to the changes the future brings.

  https://www.cnbc.com/2019/06/11/this-is-a-15-trillion-opportunity-for-farmers-to-fight-climate-change.html

 “The potential for agricultural soils to capture and store atmospheric carbon dioxide is the most hopeful solution I know of to address climate change,” said David Perry, Indigo’s CEO. “The technology and know-how for regenerative farming already exists, so we can begin to make a difference right now.”

Origins of War: Anthropology Prof. R. Brian Ferguson debunks Steven Pinker's war violent humans ideology

You can see from my comments - I predicted that there would be the repeated lies about Elizabeth Marshall Thomas' book "The Harmless People."

Sure enough!

Is this person gonna lie about anthropologist Dr. Elizabeth Marshall Thomas' book "The Harmless People"?

 ah John Horgan is repeating the lies about Elizabeth Marshall Thomas' book "The Harmless People" - should have expected that.

Amazingly Professor Brian Ferguson DEBUNKS STeven Pinker! So glad to see this. I discovered Pinker's repeating of lies - and the typical "promotion" of science lies as rational humanism, blah, blah.

https://rutgers.academia.edu/BFerguson

https://www.academia.edu/3816994/Pinkers_List_Exaggerating_Prehistoric_War_Mortality

 https://www.academia.edu/3112521/The_Birth_of_War

It's comforting that a true expert in the field is corroborating my claim that Steven Pinker was wrong.

So Ferguson amazingly even documents war not spreading into China until the 5th millennium BCE!! In other words we can trace the spread of organized warfare with the spread of wheat-based Westernized civilization - monocultural farming with the plow and chariot and wagon....

He disputes the belief of many scholars that humans may have inherited their genetic makeup from their chimpanzee cousins millions of years ago. After examining every reported chimpanzee killing, Ferguson, who is writing a book on the subject, believes that war among chimps was not an evolved evolutionary strategy but rather a response to human contact and disturbances.

https://phys.org/news/2018-12-scientific-proof-war-ingrained-human.html

https://www.projectcensored.org/incoming-anthropologists-study-challenges-claim-that-humans-are-hardwired-for-war/

At a slightly later time, settlements, weapons and burials in the northern Tigris suggest war involving settled villages of hunter-gatherers between 9750 and 8750 B.C. Nearby, the earliest known village fortifications occurred among farming people in the seventh millennium, and the first conquest of an urban center took place between 3800 and 3500 B.C. By that date, war was common across Anatolia, spread in part by conquering migrants from the northern Tigris.

 https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/war-is-not-part-of-human-nature/

  (h) The "Talmudic Tradition" of emphasizing learning and abstract reasoning provides a clear cultural explanation for higher IQ among Ashkenazi. In Ashkenazi history,

 yep - similarly with religious training for females in Islam. I have noticed that the Somali females do very well in education due to their religious training.

https://quillette.com/2018/02/19/the-political-chimp/

So here was have a psychologist - probably funded by the military - refusing to accept Ferguson's evidence.

Why my multimeter and charger reading on generator are not functioning? DC Motor reverse polarity part 2: Residual or Remnant Magnetism

with reversed polarity the voltage will not increase because the remnant magnetism in the field core is opposite to that required at start-up. The voltage regulator relay will never close to strengthen the field. All else being equal, a momentary closure of the output relay will reverse the remanant magnetism in the generator field.

 https://www.quora.com/What-are-the-two-ways-by-which-the-polarity-of-the-output-voltage-of-a-separately-excited-DC-generator-can-be-changed

Fascinating! So will this destroy the new DC-DC Buck converter? I am getting charge... I think.

I better go switch the direction of the motor around....

OK I just flipped the DC motor around - but one of my screws is stripped. So I have a board at an angle - and hopefully the V-belt is tight enough to try get a volt reading now.

OK so I tore out the multimeter connection that I had wired in with my charging wire connection to the generator. So then I tested the multimeter with a new AAA battery - sure enough I got 1590 millivolts!

So I now the multimeter is working. So I cut longer wire for a better connection from the DC motor. So then I hand spun the motor and I got a couple volts. So now I AM getting a volt reading!! So then I tried on the bicycle and I didn't even get up to 4 volts!! Terrible! Why? Because the belt is slipping.

So now I need to tighten up the belt - but switching the motor direction did fix the reverse polarity problem.

I just need to cut up some lumber for a better connection - and maybe get more screws. I keep stripping out the screws - cheap metal.

The readings become erroneous once the battery is low on the multimeter

I thought it had a low battery indicator? Maybe they mean it will indict if batteries are low...

So I was getting amp charge reading (with the wires switched) but I couldn't get any volt reading. Then I noticed the charge percentage on the generator wasn't working right. So I looked it up - and turns out that the permanent magnet has a remnant polarity - so just switching the wires will not allow the voltage circuit to close off. So then I did physically remove and switch around the DC Motor. So now I am getting a voltage reading! The V-belt is too loose though - I have to reconfigure the whole mounting bracket set up. At least I'm "going in the right direction" now! haha. So I figured I better fix that since I ordered a higher power DC-DC buck converter.

DC Voltage Regulator, DROK DC-DC Buck Converter Module 10V-75V to 0-60V 12A Adjustable Power Supply Step Down Transformer Board -

it has a voltage display on it. So I can now pedal up to 75 volts (I think it can go a bit higher) - and maybe get 6 amps charging hopefully.

Yes was I definitely getting charge with the reverse polarity - but the Charge percentage reading was not working! Only when I turned off the generator and then later turned it on  did the increase in charge then register.

Residual magnetism is utilized in case of DC generators. In a DC generator, the initial emf is developed due to residual magnetism of field poles. As the generator voltage feeds the field winding also, field gets gradually strengthened till the generator full voltage is developed.

 https://www.quora.com/What-is-residual-magnetism-and-how-does-it-help-to-build-up-output-current-in-an-alternator

 It is the generator effect within the motor that produces the back emf, that limits the current flow into the motor, so if the magnetic field is somehow kept alive through remnant magnetism, permanent magnetism or separately excitation methods, then one cannot have a rotating unit that can act as a motor without acting as a generator at the same time.

https://www.quora.com/Can-a-DC-motor-be-converted-into-a-DC-generator

In fact, in a brushed permanent magnet motor, no conversion needs to be done. Just spin the shaft and it generates DC voltage/current.

 Now start your prime mover and with leftover residual magnetism in the pole cores, the generator will have sufficient field strength to develop voltage almost immediately.

.for a same dc gen converted in dc motor the direction of rotation of motor will be same if u give dc supply or connect the + terminal of dc supply to that brush which was initially + that is current was flowing out of that brush into load in case of dc gen and in case of motor if u connect the external dc supply = to that brush only from which current was coming out

Oh - I forgot to REVERSE the WIRES back - in connecting to the DC-DC Buck Converter!! Oops. Hilarious.

However, you need to be aware that the DC voltage that the motor will produce, if you spin the rotor externally, will likely be very dirty and spiky, and you will need capacitors to smooth it out into usable DC. Spinning in one direction will produce positive DC voltage, and the other direction will produce negative voltage, assuming you stay consistent with which wire you label as neutral.

However,because of the constant switching action of the commutator, the current produced is constantly interrupted, although all in one direction. Also, the carbon brushes bridge between the commutator segments; good for a motor as it stops sparking but wasting power from a generator. Not good. It's much better to generate AC, using an alternator (which has no commutator) and then rectify if you want DC output. I hope it helps.

In case of generator the shaft is rotated by some external force due to presence of residual magnetism in the field winding the electrical power we received from the brush rings..

  An alternator uses mechanical energy to spin the rotor, to electrically excite the windings.

  But make sure about field current direction. If you make a connection that makes field current flow in reverse direction to that during generating mode, motor tends to reach dangerously high speeds and may damage.